Nouns

Introduction

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In the previous lesson, we introduced a number of verbs and saw how to put them together into simple sentences. In this lesson, we focus on the other major part of those sentences: the nouns that make up the subjects and objects in the sentences. In particular, we will review noun modification, learn the equivalent of the in MacZ and how to pluralize nouns.

Modifiers

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As you may have already noticed in our example sentences, noun modifiers in MacZ typically follow the noun. Thus, adjectives follow the nouns they modify in MacZ, the opposite order of English. This is shown in the examples given below:

There is one adjective that deserves special mention, and that is –to', another word for 'little'. It is called the diminutive suffix because it makes words that refer to small (and often cute) things. Since it is a suffix, it doesn't stand alone, but attaches to the word that precedes it:

The –to' suffix usually comes at the end, following any other adjectives:

This –to' suffix also gives MacZ the word for 'child': unto'. Here, the suffix has combined with un-, which essentially means 'one'. Un- can be combined with many adjectives, such as in the examples below:

In addition to adjectives, one noun may be used to modify another to form a compound. We have already seen examples of this as well. Here again, the modifier follows the noun that is modified, the opposite order found in English:

Generic and Indefinite Nouns

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So far, we have introduced all nouns with tu 'a(n)' or have used them without any article at all. MacZ does also have an equivalent to English the, which will be discussed below. Tu 'a(n)' plus a noun behaves essentially like a(n) plus a noun in English, referring to a single entity which is new in the conversation. Thus, (1) indicates that some person is singing, but presumably the speaker doesn't know which one. In (2), I am feeding some dog, but presumably the listener is not in a position to identify which one (perhaps I am talking on the phone while feeding a dog which is unfamiliar to the listener.)

1. Rulla tu benne'.
'A person is singing.'

2. Rugooya' tu beccu'.
'I am feeding a dog.'

When no article is present with the noun in MacZ, the noun is understood generically, that is, as referring to that class of entities as a whole. Thus in (3), (4), and (5) below, we are talking about what cats, snakes, dogs and pigs generally do (or don't) do. In (7), the listener (you) doesn't just make one pretty comb but makes them in general, perhaps as a business or hobby.

3. Ri'ya miishi niisi'.
'Cats drink milk.'

4. Roo bèllà bediina'.
'Snakes eat mice.'

5. Ruushia' beccu'.
'Dogs bark.'

6. Abii rduu cucchi.
'Pigs don't fly.'

7. Ruunlù' bíá joscu.
'You make pretty combs.'

As we can see, nouns used generically in English are generally put in the plural when they refer to countable entities (hence, cats, snakes, mice, dogs, pigs, and combs in the above examples). When the entity referred to by the noun is not countable, as with niisi' and milk in (3), English uses the plain noun with no article just as MacZ does.

'This', 'That' and 'The' in MacZ

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English has the demonstrative words this (these) and that (those) which can indicate the relative position of some entity referred to by a noun. For example, if I ask a shopkeeper the sentences in (8), it is likely that when I ask the questions the dress in (8a) is nearer to me than the dress in (8b) is.

8a. How much is this dress?
8b. And how much is that dress?

So, this (these being the plural form as in (9) below) indicates that the entity—the dress in this case—is relatively near the speaker while that (those plural) indicates the entity is further away.

9. a. I like these books.
9. b. But I don't like those books.

MacZ, in contrast, has three demonstrative suffixes used to indicate position. Since they are suffixes they do not precede the noun as English this and that do, but they follow, attaching to the preceding word as shown in the examples below:

The suffix -ni indicates that noun referent, such as the basket in (10), is very near the speaker, essentially within arm's reach at the time of speaking. The suffix –nà' indicates that the noun referent is beyond arm's reach of the speaker but still within sight at the time of speaking. The suffix –á indicates that the referent is out of the sight of the speaker at the time of speaking. These differences are illustrated in the picture below in which a speaker, listener, and three baskets are positioned within and next to a closed, windowless room. The speaker would refer to the closest basket as summini, to the basket within the room but out of reach as summinà', and to the basket outside the room as summiá.

Pronunciation and Variants

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Additional examples of the demonstratives are given below in (11). The demonstrative suffixes do not shift the stress; the words they attach to are pretty much pronounced as they would be in isolation. The only real difference is that the final glottal stop may delete, especially before –á. Thus, benne'á in (11) below may sound more like benneá. The ' is preserved in writing to help the reader identify the root word.

The only other pronunciation difference involves words ending in a (or a') before the –á suffix. The final vowel in forms like bèllàá 'that snake (unseen)' and yeedaá 'that corn (unseen)' are not lengthened as stressed vowels are. Instead, the final a and the –á suffix coalesce into a single vowel. The tone of –á is usually preserved and thus bèllàá would be pronounced bèllá while yeedaá would be yeedá. As a result, depending on the final tone of the word, the –á suffixed form may not be at all distinct from the unsuffixed word. Even if the tones are distinct, it will often be hard for non-native speakers to hear the difference. We have therefore opted to always overtly write the –á suffix in such cases to help non-native speakers know that the suffix is present and also to help again in identifying the root word.¹

If the word preceding the demonstrative ends in a consonant other than ' (glottal stop), the –á suffix is deleted. This mostly occurs with borrowed words since almost all native words end in a vowel or a glottal stop. Some examples are given below:

For borrowed words that end in a vowel, the –á suffix appears as with native words:

The Demonstrative Suffixes Used for 'The'

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The demonstratives suffixes occur much more frequently than the demonstratives words do in English because the demonstrative suffixes in MacZ are generally required in all the cases where English requires the. MacZ does not have a word for the, but instead requires the demonstrative suffixes whenever the would be required in English (and even in some places where English doesn't use the). As a result, this often means that MacZ must specify the location of an entity that is left unspecified in English. In other words, -ni, -nà', and -á, which specify a location with respect to the speaker, are often simply translated as the in English, which doesn't specify a location.

14. ¿Barulla unto'á libruá?
'Is the child reading the book?'

15. Abii ra'athi beccu'nà' loo loonaá.
'The dog doesn't sleep on the bed.'

16. Rudiiaya' lecciónni.
'I'm writing the lesson.'

17. ¿Barugwiia'lù' unto'nà'?
'Are you watching the child?'

18. Abii ri'ya beyùú'ni indiayi'nà'.
'This man isn't drinking the atole.'

19. ¿Binni rullia bia'á?
'What is the horse kicking?'

20. Ruushia' beccu'á.
'The dog is barking.'

Proper Names

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Not only are the demonstrative suffixes required where English has the, they also must be used with proper names of people, a place where English usually doesn't use the. The appropriate demonstrative suffix must be used depending on where the person is with the respect to the speaker (the exact form of the demonstrative depends on the ending of the name):

As a result, translating an English sentence like 'Henry is writing a lesson' into Zapotec will depend on where Henry is in relation to the speaker at the moment of speaking. If Henry is beside the speaker, then he or she would utter (22a), if Henry is within sight of the speaker but not next to him or her then (22b) would be appropriate, and if Henry is not within sight, then (22c).

22. a. Rudiia Enriqueni tu lección.
22. b. Rudiia Enriquenà' tu lección.
22. c. Rudiia Enriqueá tu lección.

Occasionally, English conveys a similar meaning by using here or there after a person's name, as in the following quotes from Star Wars:

23. a. "Chewbacca here is first mate on a ship that might suit us."—Obi-Wan Kenobi
23. b. "Han Solo. I'm captain of the Millennium Falcon. Chewie here tells me you're looking for passage to the Alderaan system."

It seems to me that when here is used after a person's name that the person must be near the speaker. Certainly, that was the case in each of the above quotes: Chewbacca (Chewie) was standing a little behind Obi-Wan Kenobi when the latter says (23a) and is sitting beside Han Solo as he produces (23b). So, English actually has something similar to –ni (and –nà') with proper names, but in English this is optional whereas in MacZ it is required.

Demonstratives and Adjectives

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The demonstrative suffixes always follow any adjectives or compounded nouns that follow the head noun. This is like English which allows adjectives and compounded nouns to come between the (or this/these or that/those) and a following noun. So, just as we get this pretty basket in English, we say summi joscuni in MacZ.

The demonstrative suffixes attach to the last modifier, and in the case of –á may coalesce with the final vowel of the modifier or be omitted all together when it follows a word ending in a consonant (other than glottal stop).

24. ¿Nuuni rdaa' laani unto' chincu'ni?
'Who is walking with this little child?'

25. Ro'o niula guulanà' vestidu yattzini.
'That old woman is buying this yellow dress.'

26. Ruushia' beccu' sheeniá.
'The big dog is barking.'

27. ¿Nuuni rugwi'ya bia' etthiani inda ilaa'.
'Who is giving this black horse beer to drink?'

28. Ra'athi miishiá loo loonato'ni.
'The cat sleeps on this little bed.'

29. Roo bèllà ya'anà' tu bediina' sheeni.
'That green snake is eating a big rat.'

30. Abii rduu binni joscuto'ni.
'This pretty little bird doesn't fly.'

31. Ruya'aya' laani uncwiiti' duusini.
'I'm dancing with the drunk guy.'

32. ¿Barutti'lù' carru sittzi cuubinà'?
'Are you selling that new white car?'

33. ¿Bishca abii roolù' beela' cucchini laani etta?
'Why aren't you eating this pork with tortillas?'

34. Rugwiia'ya' bia sittzi sheeninà'.
'I am looking at the big white cloud.'

35. ¿Nuuni neccu' vestidu azul?
'Who is wearing the blue dress?'

36. Rugooya' binni ya'aá etta.
'I feed the green bird tortillas.'

37. ¿Nuuni ri'ya jugu maraashanà'?
'Who is drinking the orange juice?'

Plural

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The last grammar point for nouns in this lesson will be the formation of plurals. Forming the plural in MacZ is a relatively simple manner: the plural marker ca is placed before the noun as in the following:

39. Rugwiia'ya' ca bianà'.
'I'm watching the clouds.'

40. Ro'oya' ca ttzii librunà' laani belliuni.
'I'm buying those ten books with this money.'

41. Roo ca beccu'nà' ca ettanà'.
'Those dogs are eating the tortillas.'

42. Rutti' beyùú'nà' ca carrunà'.
'That man is selling the cars.'

43. ¿Nuuni rii ca trasteá?
'Who is washing the dishes?'

Observe in the above sentences that the demonstrative suffixes remain the same regardless of whether they attach to a singular or plural noun, unlike English where this and that are used with singular nouns while these and those occur with plural nouns.

Furthermore, the ca formation of plurals is very regular in MacZ. While English has a number of irregularly formed plurals like those in (44) below, all plurals in MacZ are formed by simply placing ca at the beginning of the noun phrase.

The only complication that arises is that the diminutive suffix –to' has a plural form –to'saa. Whenever, a diminutive noun is pluralized with ca, -saa must be added to the diminutive suffix:

46. Ro'oya' ca vestidu joscuto'saani què' ca niulato'saaá.
'I am buying these pretty little dresses for the girls.'

47. Ruya'a ca beyùú'to'saanà' laani ca macchito'saana'.
'The boys are dancing with the little monkeys.'

Additional Example Sentences

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48. Rulla beyùú' duusiá què' niula.
'The drunk man sings for women.'

49. Ri'ya bia' sheeniá inda.
'The big horse drinks water.'

50. Rugwiia' beyùú'nà' beccu'nà'.
'The man is watching the dog.'

51. Rushiisi unto'ni.
'The child is laughing.'

52. Roo macchi guulanà' tu betua'.
'The old monkey is eating a banana.'

53. Ruya'aya' laani niulani.
'I'm dancing with the woman.'

54. Ruuni Margaritani summi.
'Margarita makes baskets.'

55. Rulla Enriquenà' libru chincu'nà'.
'Henry is reading the little book.'

56. Rugwiia'ya' ca niulanà'.
'I'm watching the women.'

Vocabulary

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Practice Exercises

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Translate the following sentences into Zapotec:

1. Those men are drying corn.

2. This child doesn't eat potatoes.

3. Why is the dog barking?

4. Are you giving the old monkey pulque to drink?

5. When I'm dancing with this young woman, you don't smile.

Translate the following sentences into English:

1. Rudiia benne'ni tu libru sheeni.

2. Loochi rutti' beyùú'nà' ttzii summi, attianna ro'o niulanà' tu vestidu cuubi laani belliuá.

3. ¿Nuuni ruuni ca juguete joscuni?

4. Abii ri'ya miishinà' niisi'.

5. ¿Baroolù' ca etta etthiaá loo loonaá?

Answer the following Zapotec questions with a complete sentence in Zapotec:

1. ¿Nuuni roo lagoonà'?

2. ¿Biini rugwi'yalù' miishi etthianà'?

3. ¿Biini ro'o ca niulanà'?

4. ¿Nuuni rugoo ca bia'ni?

5. ¿Barduu binni yattzini?

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